第7章 「数学原理ーその哲学的側面」 n.9 - 型の理論(タイプ理論)とは?
「定義不可能なものについての論議 -それが哲学的論理学の主要部分をなす- は、問題となっている存在(entities concerned)を、明瞭に見、かつ他人に明瞭に見させようとする努力であり、精神が赤さとかパイナップルの味とかに対してもつような種類の『直接知(直知)』(acquaintance)を、それらの存在者(訳注:現在のところよくわからないもの)に対しても持つにいたらしめようとすることである。しかし今の場合(事例)のように、定義不可能なものが、主として分析の過程において得られる必然的な残存物(the necessary residue)である場合には、そういう存在がなければならないと知ることの方が、そういう存在を現実に知覚することよりも、多くの場合容易である。ここには、(あの)海王星(Neptune)の発見を生んだ過程と似た過程が存在している。異なるのは、最後の段階 - 推理された存在者を精神の望遠鏡によって探すこと- が多くの場合仕事(事業)の最も困難な部分であるということである。 |
Chapter 7: Principia Mathematica: Philosophical Aspects, n.9Without going into difficult technical details, it is possible to explain the broad principles of the theory of types. Perhaps the best way of approaching the theory is by examination of what is meant by a 'class'. Let us start with a homely illustration. Suppose, at the end of dinner, your host offers you a choice of three different sweets, urging you to have any one or two or all three, as you may wish. How many courses of conduct are open to you? You may refuse all of them. That is one choice. You may take one of them. This is possible in three different ways and therefore gives you three more choices. You may choose two of them. This again is possible in three ways. Or you may choose all three, which gives you one final possibility. The total number of possibilities is thus eight, i.e. 23. It is easy to generalize this procedure. Suppose you have n objects before you and you wish to know how many ways there are of choosing none or some or all of the n. You will find that the number of ways is 23. To put it in logical language: a class of n terms has 23 sub-classes. This proposition is still true when n is infinite. What Cantor proved was that, even in this case, 2n is greater than n. Applying this, as I did, to all the things in the universe, one arrives at the conclusion that there are more classes of things than there are things. It follows that classes are not 'things'. But, as no one quite knows what the word ‘thing' means in this statement, it is not very easy to state at all exactly what it is that has been proved. The conclusion to which I was led was that classes are merely a convenience in discourse. I was already somewhat bewildered on the subject of classes at the time when I wrote The Principles of Mathematics. I expressed myself, however, in those days, in language which was more realistic (in the scholastic sense) than I should now think suitable. I said in the preface to that work:‘The discussion of indefinables - which forms the chief part of philosophical logic - is the endeavour to see clearly, and to make others see clearly, the entities concerned, in order that the mind may have that kind of acquaintance with them which it has with redness or the taste of a pineapple. Where, as in the present case, the indefinables are obtained primarily as the necessary residue in a process of analysis, it is often easier to know that there must be such entities than actually to perceive them; there is a process analogous to that which resulted in the discovery of Neptune, with the difference that the final stage - the search with a mental telescope for the entity which has been inferred - is often the most difficult part of the undertaking. In the case of classes, I must confess, I have failed to perceive any concept fulfilling the conditions requisite for the notion of class. And the contradiction discussed in Chapter X proves that something is amiss, but what this is I have hitherto failed to discover.' |